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2020 election to cost $14 billion, blowing away spending …
https://www.opensecrets.org › news › 2020/10 › cost-of…
Oct 28, 2020 — The total cost of the 2020 election will nearly reach an unprecedented $14 billion, making it the most expensive election in history and twice as expensive as …
>2020 election to cost $14 billion, blowing away spending …
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>https://www.opensecrets.org › news › 2020/10 › cost-of…
>Oct 28, 2020 — The total cost of the 2020 election will nearly reach an unprecedented $14 billion, making it the most expensive election in history and twice as expensive as …
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Formal fallacies
Main article: Formal fallacy
A formal fallacy is an error in the argument's form.[2] All formal fallacies are types of non sequitur.
Appeal to probability – a statement that takes something for granted because it would probably be the case (or might be the case).[3][4]
Argument from fallacy (also known as the fallacy fallacy) – the assumption that, if a particular argument for a "conclusion" is fallacious, then the conclusion by itself is false.[5]
Base rate fallacy – making a probability judgment based on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the effect of prior probabilities.[6]
Conjunction fallacy – the assumption that an outcome simultaneously satisfying multiple conditions is more probable than an outcome satisfying a single one of them.[7]
Non-sequitur fallacy - where the conclusion does not logically follow the premise. [8]
Masked-man fallacy (illicit substitution of identicals) – the substitution of identical designators in a true statement can lead to a false one.[9]
Propositional fallacies
A propositional fallacy is an error that concerns compound propositions. For a compound proposition to be true, the truth values of its constituent parts must satisfy the relevant logical connectives that occur in it (most commonly: [and], [or], [not], [only if], [if and only if]). The following fallacies involve relations whose truth values are not guaranteed and therefore not guaranteed to yield true conclusions.
Types of propositional fallacies:
Affirming a disjunct – concluding that one disjunct of a logical disjunction must be false because the other disjunct is true; A or B; A, therefore not B.[10]
Affirming the consequent – the antecedent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be true because the consequent is true; if A, then B; B, therefore A.[10]
Denying the antecedent – the consequent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false; if A, then B; not A, therefore not B.[10]
Quantification fallacies
A quantification fallacy is an error in logic where the quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the quantifier of the conclusion.
Types of quantification fallacies:
Existential fallacy – an argument that has a universal premise and a particular conclusion.[11]
Formal syllogistic fallacies
Syllogistic fallacies – logical fallacies that occur in syllogisms.
Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (illicit negative) – a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion, but at least one negative premise.[11]
Fallacy of exclusive premises – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because both of its premises are negative.[11]
Fallacy of four terms (quaternio terminorum) – a categorical syllogism that has four terms.[12]
Illicit major – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its major term is not distributed in the major premise but distributed in the conclusion.[11]
Illicit minor – a categorical syllogism that is invalid because its minor term is not distributed in the minor premise but distributed in the conclusion.[11]
Negative conclusion from affirmative premises (illicit affirmative) – a categorical syllogism has a negative conclusion but affirmative premises.[11]
Fallacy of the undistributed middle – the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed.[13]
Modal fallacy – confusing necessity with sufficiency. A condition X is necessary for Y if X is required for even the possibility of Y. X does not bring about Y by itself, but if there is no X, there will be no Y. For example, oxygen is necessary for fire. But one cannot assume that everywhere there is oxygen, there is fire. A condition X is sufficient for Y if X, by itself, is enough to bring about Y. For example, riding the bus is a sufficient mode of transportation to get to work. But there are other modes of transportation – car, taxi, bicycle, walking – that can be used.
Modal scope fallacy – a degree of unwarranted necessity is placed in the conclusion.