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NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day
December 23, 2025
Red Sprites and Circular Elves Lightning over Italy
What's happening in the sky? Lightning. The most commonly seen type of lightning involves flashes of bright white light between clouds. Over the past 50 years, though, other types of upper-atmospheric lightning have been confirmed, including tentacled red sprites and ringed ELVES. Although both last only a small fraction of a second, sprites are brighter and easier to photograph than their more common electrical-discharge cousins. ELVES are rapidly expanding rings that are thought to be created when an electromagnetic pulse shoots upward from charged clouds and impacts the ionosphere, causing nitrogen molecules to glow. Capturing either form of lightning takes patience and experience – capturing them both together, since they usually occur separately, is rare. The featured image is a frame from a video recorded from Possagno, Italy late last month above a distant thunderstorm over the Adriatic Sea.
https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html
Pole Shift Plasma Penetration, Double Solar Watch | S0 News and frens
Dec.23.2025
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNY_wHzZAag
https://x.com/StefanBurnsGeo/status/2003177007904145751
https://x.com/AstronomyVibes/status/2003143593389945265
https://x.com/forallcurious/status/2003268528183607727
https://x.com/MrMBB333/status/2003151602019123571
https://x.com/SchumannBotDE/status/2003450873297371564
https://scitechdaily.com/nasas-new-mission-will-expose-earths-invisible-halo/
https://www.space.com/live/aurora-forecast-will-the-northern-lights-be-visible-tonight-dec-22
https://www.space.com/stargazing/auroras/northern-lights-may-be-visible-in-10-states-dec-22-23
https://www.marthastewart.com/northern-lights-may-be-visible-in-10-states-tonight-11874299
https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/news/mainly-fair-space-weather-expected-christmas-week
https://spaceweather.com/
New Radio Data and Diameter Estimate for 3I/ATLAS
December 23, 2025
A new paper, posted here, reports data from 7.25 hours during July 2, 2025 of radio observations of the interstellar object 3I/ATLAS with the Allen Telescope Array.
Within the frequency range of 1–9 GHz, there were nearly 74 million narrowband hits. After mitigating Radio Frequency Interference in the dataset, only about 2 million hits were left. These hits were further filtered by sky localization.
The vast majority of them did not coincide with 3I/ATLAS in the sky. The remaining 211 hits were visually inspected in the time-frequency domain and the observers did not find any signals worthy of additional follow-up.
Accounting for the radial velocity (Doppler) drift of 3I/ATLAS, the upper limit deduced on the isotropic radiated power of 3I/ATLAS is in the range 10 to 110 Watts within the observed range of radio frequencies.
The team plans to re-observe 3I/ATLAS in December 2025.
In another new preprint posted today here, the latest data on the non-gravitational acceleration of 3I/ATLAS was combined with data on its mass loss rate to conclude that the diameter of its nucleus is of order 1 kilometer.
This size estimate confirms the value predicted in my first paper on 3I/ATLAS, published in early July here.
The estimate follows the momentum conservation equation that I posted three months ago here, where the non-gravitational acceleration results from the recoil of 3I/ATLAS -associated with a mass loss in a preferred direction.
However, there are several uncertainties that might alter this estimate considerably:
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The non-gravitational acceleration was downsized multiple times since November 2, 2025 by NASA’s JPL-Horizons listing here.
Its normalization depends on the sky-localization uncertainties assigned to telescope images of 3I/ATLAS, as well as on the model adopted for the dependance of the acceleration on distance from the Sun.
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The momentum imparted to the nucleus of 3I/ATLAS could be dominated by the ejection of fragments of icy material (as discussed in the paper that I co-authored with Eric Keto here), rather than gas particles at their thermal speed.
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The directionality and the ejection speed of the material from the surface of the nucleus could be different from their assumed values.
Currently, there is no spectroscopic measurement of the velocity of the observed jets in images of 3I/ATLAS. Hopefully, future observations by the Webb telescope will measure the jet velocities.
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The dominant anti-tail jet appeared to be in the direction of the Sun both before perihelion (as evident from the Hubble Space Telescope image on July 21, 2025 here) and after perihelion (as evident from the Hubble image on November 30, 2025 here).
The direction of the trajectory of 3I/ATLAS was deflected by the Sun’s gravity only by 16 degrees at perihelion (based on my calculation here), and so the momentum given to the nucleus by the anti-tail jets before and after perihelion nearly cancel out.
The current analysis does not take into consideration the evolution in the direction of the jets during the past 6 months.
Science is fun as a learning experience. At the end of my new podcast interview with Dr. Brian Keating (accessible here), I pointed out that some people choose to dedicate their body to science after their death.
On the other hand, I choose to dedicate my body to science while I am alive.
https://avi-loeb.medium.com/new-radio-data-and-diameter-estimate-for-3i-atlas-24de84dfa34e
https://avi-loeb.medium.com/will-material-from-3i-atlas-arrive-at-earth-2c95cfcb96f0
https://arxiv.org/pdf/2512.18142
https://x.com/RedCollie1/status/2003229875768033460
https://x.com/DobsonianPower/status/2003095277876531203
https://x.com/tonycorp45/status/2003278453681115160
https://x.com/Eyes_OnTheSkies/status/2002250179735679156
https://x.com/TylerPartridge_/status/2002054174486483208
https://x.com/d2fl/status/2003477852268957717
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJxX36IEVFA (Brian Keting and Avi Loeb: What Is 3I/ATLAS?)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wvuky8dFa0M (Luis Andrés Jaspersen Revilla: 2025-12-20 NASA Spots a CLEAR JET Shooting Out of 3IATLAS)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4R0YWlu99nY (Dobsonian Power: EARTH WILL CROSS 3I/ATLAS DEBRIS!)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8O50-xFtRc (Ray's Astrophotography: Comet 3I ATLAS — Disclosure Day and Why We Need to SETTLE With the UNKNOWN — I Took a PICTURE)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WK6G10ftBJA (Angry Astronaut analyzes Ray's Astrophotography! PLUS, did Avi Loeb REALLY say that 3I Atlas is a comet??))
Space Station Astronauts Offer 2025 Holiday Greetings
Dec 22, 2025
Aboard the International Space Station, NASA astronauts Mike Fincke, Zena Cardman, and Chris Williams, along with JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Kimiya Yui, wish a merry Christmas and a happy holiday season to Earth in a message recorded on Dec. 17, 2025.
The four astronauts are in the middle of a long-duration mission living and working aboard the microgravity laboratory.
The goal of their mission is to advance scientific knowledge and demonstrate new technologies for future human and robotic exploration missions as part of NASA’s Moon and Mars exploration approach, including lunar missions through NASA’s Artemis program.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F4rldqgCaHE
https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/johnson/nasa-johnson-celebrates-25-years-of-holidays-in-space/
NASA Astronaut Nick Hague Retires
Dec 23, 2025
NASA astronaut Brig. Gen. Nick Hague has retired from the agency, concluding a distinguished career that included two spaceflight missions, 374 days in space, and multiple spacewalks in support of the International Space Station. Hague continues service in the U.S. Space Force.
Hague launched aboard the Soyuz MS-12 spacecraft in March 2019 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan for his first long-duration mission, serving as a flight engineer during Expeditions 59/60.
During this 203-day mission, he conducted three spacewalks to upgrade the station’s power systems and support ongoing maintenance of the orbiting laboratory.
Hague also contributed to a wide range of scientific investigations, spanning biology, human physiology, materials science, and technology demonstrations.
Hague originally was assigned to fly in 2018 as part of the Soyuz MS-10 crew. The mission experienced a launch anomaly shortly after liftoff, and Hague and his crewmate executed a high-G ballistic abort.
The two landed safely and Hague returned to flight status within months, ultimately completing his 2019 mission.
He flew again during NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 mission, launching in September 2024 alongside Roscosmos cosmonaut Aleksandr Gorbunov.
It was the first human spaceflight mission launched from Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida, and it also marked the first time a Space Force Guardian launched to space.
Hague then joined the Expedition 72 crew, spending 171 days aboard the station before returning in March 2025 along with NASA astronauts Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams.
During the mission, he conducted another spacewalk, bringing his career total to 25 hours and 56 minutes across four spacewalks.
“Nick’s determination and dedication to human space exploration are truly phenomenal,” said Vanessa Wyche, director of NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston.
“His leadership and commitment to mission excellence have supported progress aboard the International Space Station and prepared us for future missions as we continue to explore farther into the solar system.”
Beyond his flight experience, Hague served in several technical and leadership roles within NASA. He supported the development of future spacecraft operations, contributed to astronaut training, and played a key role in human spaceflight safety initiatives, drawing on his firsthand experience during the MS-10 launch abort.
“Nick brought calm, clarity, and a spirit of teamwork to every situation,” said Scott Tingle, chief of the Astronaut Office at NASA Johnson.
“From his work in orbit to his support of crew operations here on Earth, he exemplified what it means to be an astronaut. His impact will continue to shape the missions and the astronauts who follow.”
A native of Hoxie, Kansas, Hague is a brigadier general in the U.S. Space Force where he is responsible for the development and implementation of policy for all U. S. Space Force global operations, sustainment, training and readiness.
He earned a bachelor’s degree in astronautical engineering from the U.S. Air Force Academy in Colorado and a master’s degree in astronautical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Before joining NASA in 2013, he served in developmental and test engineer roles supporting advanced Air Force technologies and operations at home and abroad.
“It has been an honor to serve as a NASA astronaut,” said Hague. “Working alongside incredible teams, on the ground and in space, has been the privilege of a lifetime.
The International Space Station represents the very best of what humanity can accomplish when we work together. I am grateful to have contributed to that mission, and I look forward to watching NASA, our partners, and the next generation of explorers push even farther as we return to the Moon and journey on to Mars.”
https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-astronaut-nick-hague-retires/
NASA Works MAVEN Spacecraft Issue Ahead of Solar Conjunction
December 23, 2025
NASA is continuing efforts to recontact its MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN) spacecraft, which was last heard from on Dec. 6.
In partnership with NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN), the MAVEN team has sent commands for spacecraft recovery and is monitoring the network for a spacecraft signal.
The MAVEN team also continues to analyze tracking data fragments recovered from a Dec. 6 radio science campaign.
This information is being used to create a timeline of possible events and identify likely root cause of the issue.
As part of that effort, on Dec. 16 and 20, NASA’s Curiosity team used the rover’s Mastcam instrument in an attempt to image MAVEN’s reference orbit, but MAVEN was not detected.
Additional analysis will continue, but planned monitoring will be affected by the upcoming solar conjunction.
Mars solar conjunction – a period when Mars and Earth are on opposite sides of the Sun – begins Monday, Dec. 29, and NASA will not have contact with any Mars missions until Friday, Jan. 16.
Once the solar conjunction window is over, NASA plans to resume its efforts to reestablish communications with MAVEN.
https://science.nasa.gov/blogs/maven/2025/12/23/nasa-works-maven-spacecraft-issue-ahead-of-solar-conjunction/
University Hospitals partners with NASA to advance space medicine
December 23, 2025
As NASA prepares for future missions to the Moon and Mars, ensuring astronaut health in remote environments has become a top priority.
NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland is testing portable, handheld X-ray systems that could allow crews to diagnose injuries such as broken bones or dental issues without returning to Earth.
These innovations would give astronauts immediate diagnostic capabilities in confined spacecraft environments, where traditional medical equipment is impractical.
University Hospitals (UH) is playing a critical role in the endeavor. The health system is collaborating with NASA Glenn on a clinical study to compare the performance of these compact X-ray devices against hospital-grade equipment.
UH radiography experts are evaluating usability, image clarity and diagnostic accuracy to ensure the technology meets rigorous medical standards.
Their insights will help determine which system is best suited for space missions, where ease of use and reliability are essential for non-specialist operators like astronauts.
By working alongside NASA engineers and researchers, UH is contributing to innovations that could not only safeguard astronauts but also improve access to diagnostic imaging in remote or underserved areas on Earth.
NASA plans to test the chosen system aboard the International Space Station in the coming years.
https://www.aha.org/telling-hospital-story-university-hospitals-partners-nasa-advance-space-medicine
https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-glenn-tests-mini-x-ray-technology-to-advance-space-health-care/
NASA Glenn Tests Mini-X-Ray Technology to Advance Space Health Care
Dec 23, 2025
Astronomers using NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope have imaged the largest protoplanetary disk ever observed circling a young star.
For the first time in visible light, Hubble has revealed the disk is unexpectedly chaotic and turbulent, with wisps of material stretching much farther above and below the disk than astronomers have seen in any similar system.
Strangely, more extended filaments are only visible on one side of the disk. The findings, which published Tuesday in The Astrophysical Journal, mark a new milestone for Hubble and shed light on how planets may form in extreme environments, as NASA’s missions lead humanity’s exploration of the universe and our place in it.
Located roughly 1,000 light-years from Earth, IRAS 23077+6707, nicknamed “Dracula’s Chivito,” spans nearly 400 billion miles — 40 times the diameter of our solar system to the outer edge of the Kuiper Belt of cometary bodies.
The disk obscures the young star within it, which scientists believe may be either a hot, massive star, or a pair of stars. And the enormous disk is not only the largest known planet-forming disk; it’s also shaping up to be one of the most unusual.
“The level of detail we’re seeing is rare in protoplanetary disk imaging, and these new Hubble images show that planet nurseries can be much more active and chaotic than we expected,” said lead author Kristina Monsch of the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian (CfA). “We’re seeing this disk nearly edge-on and its wispy upper layers and asymmetric features are especially striking.
Both Hubble and NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope have glimpsed similar structures in other disks, but IRAS 23077+6707 provides us with an exceptional perspective — allowing us to trace its substructures in visible light at an unprecedented level of detail.
This makes the system a unique, new laboratory for studying planet formation and the environments where it happens.”
The nickname “Dracula’s Chivito” playfully reflects the heritage of its researchers—one from Transylvania and another from Uruguay, where the national dish is a sandwich called a chivito.
he edge-on disk resembles a hamburger, with a dark central lane flanked by glowing top and bottom layers of dust and gas.
Puzzling asymmetry
The impressive height of these features wasn’t the only thing that captured the attention of scientists.
The new images revealed that vertically imposing filament-like features appear on just one side of the disk, while the other side appears to have a sharp edge and no visible filaments.
This peculiar, lopsided structure suggests that dynamic processes, like the recent infall of dust and gas, or interactions with its surroundings, are shaping the disk.
“We were stunned to see how asymmetric this disk is,” said co-investigator Joshua Bennett Lovell, also an astronomer at the CfA.
“Hubble has given us a front row seat to the chaotic processes that are shaping disks as they build new planets — processes that we don’t yet fully understand but can now study in a whole new way.”
All planetary systems form from disks of gas and dust encircling young stars.
Over time, the gas accretes onto the star, and planets emerge from the remaining material. IRAS 23077+6707 may represent a scaled-up version of our early solar system, with a disk mass estimated at 10 to 30 times that of Jupiter — ample material for forming multiple gas giants. This, plus the new findings, makes it an exceptional case for studying the birth of planetary systems.
“In theory, IRAS 23077+6707 could host a vast planetary system,” said Monsch. “While planet formation may differ in such massive environments, the underlying processes are likely similar.
Right now, we have more questions than answers, but these new images are a starting point for understanding how planets form over time and in different environments.”
https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasas-hubble-reveals-largest-found-chaotic-birthplace-of-planets/
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/news/nasas-hubble-reveals-largest-found-chaotic-birthplace-planets
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3nrk-vA_YE
Sentinels in the Sky: 50 Years of GOES Satellite Observations
Dec 22, 2025
Introduction
In an era where satellite observations of Earth are commonplace, it’s easy to forget that only a few decades ago, the amount of information available about the state of Earth’s environment was limited; observations were infrequent and data were sparsely located.
As far back as the late 1950s, there were primitive numerical weather prediction (NWP) models that could produce an accurate (or what a forecaster would call “skillful”) forecast given a set of initial conditions.
However, the data available to provide those initial conditions at that time were limited. For example, the weather balloon network circa 1960 only covered about 10% of the troposphere and did not extend into the Southern Hemisphere, the tropics, or over the ocean.
Weather forecasters of the pre-satellite era typically relied upon manual analysis of plotted weather maps, cloud observations, and barometric pressure readings when making forecasts.
They combined this limited dataset with their own experience issuing forecasts in a particular area to predict upcoming weather and storm events.
While those pioneering forecasters made the most of the limited tools available to them, poor data – or simply the lack of data – inevitably led to poor forecasts, which usually weren’t accurate beyond two days.
This time duration was even less than that in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, the forecasts issued typically lacked the specificity and lead time required to adequately prepare a community before a snowstorm or hurricane.
Although the first satellite observations (e.g., from the Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS) program or early Nimbus missions) whet forecasters' appetites for what might be possible in terms of improving weather forecasting, polar orbiting satellites could only observe a given location twice a day.
Those snapshots from above were insufficient for tracking rapidly evolving weather phenomena (e.g., thunderstorms, tornadoes, and intensification of hurricanes).
Beyond cloud information, forecasters required data on temperature, moisture, and wind profiles in the atmosphere in addition to output from NWP models.
It was the advent of geostationary observations (also called geosynchronous) that truly led to revolutionary advances in weather forecasting. This approach enabled continuous monitoring of the atmosphere over a particular region on Earth.
Hence, the development and evolution of NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) has been a major achievement for weather forecasting.
For 50 years, GOES have kept a constant vigil over the Western Hemisphere and monitored the Sun and the near-Earth environment – see Visualization 1.
Since 1975, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and NASA have partnered to advance NOAA satellite observations from geostationary orbit.
GOES satellites serve as sentinels in the sky, keeping constant watch for severe weather and environmental hazards on Earth as well as dangerous space weather.
This narrative will focus on the development and evolutions of the Earth observing instruments on GOES with a mention of several of the space weather instruments.
https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/sentinels-in-the-sky-50-years-of-goes-satellite-observations/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3AMME8pVpgg
https://science.nasa.gov/science-research/earth-science/sentinel-6b-extends-global-ocean-height-record/
Sentinel-6B Extends Global Ocean Height Record
Dec 22, 2025
On November 16, 2025, the Sentinel-6B satellite launched from Vandenberg Space Force Base (VSFB) in California.
The mission is a partnership between NASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and several European partners – the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), the French Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), and the European Commission.
Its objective is to continue collecting data to extend the ocean height record, which was started in 1992 with the U.S./French TOPEX/Poseidon satellite mission.
During the past three decades, NASA and its partners have operated a satellite in the same orbit, precisely tracking the height of the oceans across the globe, once every 10 days.
Sentinel-6B took to the skies almost five years to the day after its twin, Sentinel-6A, which launched November 20, 2020, also from VSFB, and was renamed Sentinel–6 Michael Freilich, honoring the former head of NASA’s Earth Science Division – see The Editor’s Corner [March–April 2020, 32:1, 1–2].
Together, the two missions comprise the international Sentinel-6/Jason - Continuity of Service (CS) mission, which will provide continuity with past missions from TOPEX/Poseidon through Jason-3.
Sentinel-6B will continue to measure sea level to about one inch (2.5 cm), extend the record of atmospheric temperatures, and continue sea level observations through the end of the 2020s.
The article that follows briefly introduces Sentinel-6B’s payload (which is the same as Sentinel–6 Michael Freilich). It then describes the planned science applications of the mission, followed by a brief conclusion.
Sentinel-6B Payload
The Sentinel-6B satellite carries several instruments to support the mission’s science goals – see Figure 1. A Radar Altimeter bounces signals off the ocean surface to determine the distance to the ocean.
An Advanced Microwave Radiometer (AMR) retrieves the amount of water vapor between the satellite and ocean, which affects the travel speed of radar pulses, providing a critical correction to the distance measured by the radar.
Other onboard instruments are used to precisely determine the satellite’s position [e.g., Doppler Orbitography by Radiopositioning Integrated on Satellite (DORIS) and Laser Retroreflector Array].
The height of the ocean surface can be calculated by combining the satellite’s position with the distance to the ocean. In addition, S- and X-band antennas perform data downlinks, and a solar array supplies power.
Beyond these instruments, Sentinel-6B contains Global Navigation Satellite System Radio Occultation (GNSS-RO) instrument that will aid with weather prediction.
Observations made between the spacecraft instrument and other GNSS satellites as they disappear over Earth’s limb, or horizon, will provide detailed information about variations in the layers of the atmosphere.
This information will contribute to computer models that predict the weather and enhance forecasting capabilities.
Sentinel-6B Science
The subsections that follow give a short preview of Sentinel-6B’s science capabilities, which are identical to those of Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich and similar – albeit enhanced – to the capabilities of previous satellite altimetry missions.
Measuring Ocean Height
Ocean height is a critical measurement because it provides a host of information about the movement of surface currents, transfer of energy around the planet, and an early warning system for large-scale climate phenomena, like El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) – see further discussion of ENSO below.
Satellites obtain this data using altimeters, which send a radar pulse to the ocean surface every second and measure the time it takes to return.
Pairing these data with the satellite’s precise location provides a measure of the height of the ocean water with an accuracy of within a few centimeters.
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But the simplicity of the measurement belies the volumes of information that can be gleaned from the height of the oceans.
As water moves from one place to another, it tilts the surface of the ocean, and by measuring this tilt the sea level satellites allow scientists to calculate ocean currents – see Figure 2.
Tracking the Expansion and Contraction of Water in the Ocean
Ocean height data also provide information about ocean water temperature. Since water expands as it warms, a warm patch of ocean measures several inches taller than a cold patch – see Figure 3.
Ocean height measurements thus can be used to reveal how the ocean stores and redistributes heat and energy, which are key drivers of Earth’s climate.
By observing ocean heights, Sentinel-6B will help improve forecasters’ ability to predict storm intensity and scientists’ ability to track long-term trends in heat storage.
Information on ocean height also outlines ocean currents, eddies, and tides, which helps scientists understand how heat, nutrients, carbon, and energy are transported around Earth.
These observations are essential for understanding Earth’s energy balance, ocean circulation, and the role of the ocean in shaping weather and climate patterns.
Using Ocean Height Measurements to Track ENSO
The movement of heat within the ocean is linked to weather and climate conditions across the globe.
For reasons not completely understood, the waters of the Pacific Ocean experience a periodic fluctuation between warm and cool in the eastern tropical Pacific; this cycle is called ENSO.
During an El Niño event in the Pacific Ocean, unusually warm water (which is visible in the satellite data as higher than normal sea levels) builds up along the equator in the east.
The pool of warm water shifts rainfall patterns across the United States and Canada. This change is telescoped around the globe, altering normal weather patterns.
Conversely, La Niña events develop when cooler waters accumulate along the eastern Pacific (and hence, lower than normal sea levels).
In this way, the satellite observations of sea level help scientists and forecasters better see how the ocean is changing and the type of weather conditions to expect in the coming months – see Figure 4.
Higher sea levels usually mean warmer waters, not just at the surface, but over a range of depths. This means that high sea levels can also herald rapidly intensifying storms.
Meteorologists can use this information when tracking tropical storms that gain energy from warm patches of ocean water and intensify into hurricanes - often rapidly.
Monitoring Ocean Changes
Sentinel-6B can also monitor changes in sea level. Over 90% of the heat trapped by the Earth is stored in the oceans. That heat warms the water, which takes up more space and accounts for about one-third of the observed global rise in sea level.
The remainder is driven by melting glaciers and ice sheets, which add water to the oceans as well. The result is a long-term rise in sea level by more than 10 cm (4 in) since the early 1990s, when TOPEX/Poseidon was launched.
A record of global mean sea level change for the past three decades reveals an annual oscillation that reflects the natural movement of water between the ocean and the land, much like the heartbeat of the planet – see Figure 5.
The rate of rise is not steady. The change in sea level in the 1990s was less than half the rate of rise in the most recent decade.
Conclusion
This unbroken record of sea level change stands as a crowning achievement to the accuracy, stability, and consistency of a series of satellite missions across more than three decades.
This approach remains one of the most successful international collaborations to study our ever-changing Earth from space, and the launch of Sentinel-6B will stretch the record to nearly 40 years.
With a vibrant international community of several hundred scientists and expert users, the discoveries made, and the value created by these observations will no doubt extend through 2030 and beyond.
Although Sentinel-6B is nearly identical to its predecessor, a broad community of scientists, forecasters, operational users, and policymakers anxiously await its observations and the discoveries and utility they will bring through the remainder of this decade.
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https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/nasa-kennedy-top-20-stories-of-2025/
NASA Kennedy Top 20 Stories of 2025
Dec 22, 2025
Teams at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida spent 2025 preparing the launch vehicle and its powerhouse SLS (Space Launch System) rocket to launch four astronauts around the Moon for Artemis II in early 2026.
The center also celebrated milestones by conducting science experiments at the International Space Station to studying the Sun’s solar wind impacts on Earth to traveling to Mars in hopes of one day exploring the Red Planet in person.
JANUARY
NASA Kennedy Marks New Chapter for Florida Space Industry
Kennedy Space Center Director Janet Petro and charter members of the Florida University Space Research Consortium sign a memorandum of understanding in research and development to assist with missions and contribute to NASA’s Moon to Mars exploration approach.
Firefly Launches Blue Ghost Mission One
Firefly Aerospace launched Blue Ghost Mission One lunar lander with a suite of NASA scientific instruments on January 15, from Launch Complex 39A at NASA Kennedy. The lander and instruments landed March 2 on the Moon.
FEBRUARY
Intuitive Machines Launches to the Moon
Intuitive Machines’ IM-2 Nova C lunar lander launched Feb. 26 from Launch Complex 39A, carrying NASA science and technology demonstrations to the Mons Mouton region of the Moon. IM-2 reached the surface of the Moon on March 6.
MARCH
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-10 Launch
NASA astronauts Anne McClain and Nicole Ayers, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) Takuya Onishi, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Kirill Peskov launched March 14 from Launch Complex 39A to the International Space Station for a five-month science mission.
NASA’s SPHEREx, PUNCH Missions Launch
A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket launched on March 11, from Space Launch Complex 4 East at Vandenberg Space Force Base in California carrying NASA’s SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) and PUNCH (Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere) missions. NASA’s Launch Services Program, based at NASA Kennedy managed the launch service for SPHEREx.
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 Returns
NASA astronauts Nick Hague, Suni Williams, and Butch Wilmore were greeted by dolphins and recovery teams after their SpaceX Dragon spacecraft splashed down on March 18, off the coast of Tallahassee, Florida following their long-duration mission at the International Space Station.
NASA Causeway Bridge Opens
The Florida Department of Transportation opened the westbound portion of the NASA Causeway Bridge on March 19, completing construction in both directions spanning the Indian River Lagoon and connecting NASA Kennedy and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station to the mainland.
NASA Artemis Teams Complete URT-12
Teams from NASA and the Department of War train during a week-long Underway Recovery Test-12 in March off the coast of California for Artemis II test flight crewmembers and the Orion spacecraft.
The series of tests demonstrate and evaluate the processes, procedures, and hardware used in recovery operations for crewed lunar missions.
APRIL
NASA’s SpaceX 32nd Commercial Resupply Mission
A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and a Dragon spacecraft carrying nearly 6,700 pounds of scientific investigations, food, supplies, and equipment launched on April 21 from Launch Complex 39A to the International Space Station.
JULY
Artemis III Begins Processing
NASA’s Artemis III SLS engine section and boat-tail made the journey from the Space Systems Processing Facility at NASA Kennedy to the spaceport’s Vehicle Assembly Building in July to complete integration and check-out testing.
Beginning with the Artemis III hardware, NASA moved certain operations to NASA Kennedy to streamline the manufacturing process and enable simultaneous production operations of two core stages.
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AUGUST
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-11 Launches
NASA astronauts Zena Cardman and Mike Fincke, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Kimiya Yui, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Oleg Platonov launched aboard a SpaceX Dragon spacecraft and its Falcon 9 rocket on Aug. 1 from Launch Complex 39A bound for a long-duration mission to the International Space Station.
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-10 Returns
NASA astronauts Anne McClain and Nicole Ayers, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Takuya Onishi, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Kirill Peskov became the first Commercial Crew to splash down in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California on Aug. 9, completing their nearly five-month mission at the orbiting outpost as part of the agency’s Commercial Crew Program.
NASA’s SpaceX 33rd Commercial Resupply Mission
A SpaceX Falcon 9 launched the company’s Dragon spacecraft carrying more than 5,000 pounds of food, crew supplies, science investigations, spacewalk equipment, and more to the space station on Aug. 24 from Launch Complex 39A.
Orion Tested, Stacked With Hardware
Teams transported NASA’s Orion spacecraft from Kennedy’s Multi-Payload Processing Facility to the Launch Abort System Facility in August where crews integrated the 44-foot-tall launch abort system.
The Orion spacecraft will send NASA astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and CSA (Canadian Space Agency) astronaut Jeremy Hansen around the Moon for the Artemis II mission in early 2026.
The launch abort system is designed to carry the crew to safety in the event of an emergency atop the SLS.
SEPTEMBER
NASA Launches IMAP Mission
NASA’s IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe) launched from Launch Complex 39A on Sept. 24, to help researchers better understand the boundary of the heliosphere, a huge bubble created by the Sun surrounding and protecting our solar system.
NASA’s Northrop Grumman Commercial Resupply Mission
A Northrop Grumman Cygnus XL spacecraft atop a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket lifted off from Launch Complex 39A to the International Space Station delivering NASA science investigations, supplies, and equipment as part of the agency’s partnership to resupply the orbiting laboratory.
OCTOBER
Orion Integrated With SLS Rocket
Teams stacked NASA’s Orion spacecraft with its launch abort system on the agency’s SLS rocket in High Bay 3 of the Vehicle Assembly Building at NASA Kennedy on Oct. 20 for the agency’s Artemis II mission.
Teams will begin conducting a series of verification tests ahead of rolling out the integrated SLS rocket to Launch Complex 39B for the wet dress rehearsal.
NOVEMBER
NASA’s ESCAPADE Begins Journey to Mars
NASA’s ESCAPADE (Escape and Plasma Acceleration and Dynamics Explorers) twin spacecraft launched aboard Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket on Nov. 13 from Launch Complex 36 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.
Its twin orbiters will take simultaneous observations from different locations around Mars to reveal how the solar wind interacts with Mars’ magnetic environment and how this interaction drives the planet’s atmospheric escape.
NASA, European Partners Launch Sea Satellite
A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket carrying the U.S.-European Sentinel-6B satellite launched at Nov. 16 from Space Launch Complex 4 East at Vandenberg Space Force Base in California.
Sentinel-6B will observe Earth’s ocean, measuring sea levels to improve weather forecasts and flood predictions, safeguard public safety, benefit commercial industry, and protect coastal infrastructure.
DECEMBER
NASA astronauts Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, Christina Koch, and CSA astronaut Jeremy Hansen participated in a dry dress rehearsal at NASA Kennedy on Dec. 20 to mimic launch day operations for the Artemis II launch.
The crew donned their spacesuits, exited the Neil A. Operations and Checkout Building, and took the journey to the Vehicle Assembly Building, up the mobile launcher to the crew access arm, and entered the Orion spacecraft that will take them around the Moon and back to Earth.
2/2
A Dance of Galaxies
Dec 22, 2025
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope captured two nearby dwarf galaxies interacting with each other in this image released on Dec. 2, 2025.
Dwarf galaxies can give us insights into galaxies in the early universe, which were thought to have less mass than galaxies like the Milky Way, and also contain a lot of gas, relatively few stars, and typically have small amounts of elements heavier than helium.
Observing dwarf galaxies merge can tell us how galaxies billions of years ago might have grown and evolved.
https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/a-dance-of-galaxies/
https://esawebb.org/images/potm2511a/