Separation of powers
https://grokipedia.com/page/Separation_of_powers
Separation of powers
The separation of powers is a foundational principle of constitutional governance that allocates distinct authorities to legislative, executive, and judicial branches, ensuring no single entity monopolizes state functions to thereby avert tyranny and protect individual liberty through reciprocal checks and balances.[1][2] Articulated by John Locke in his Two Treatises of Government (1689), which distinguished legislative from executive and federative powers, the doctrine was refined by Charles de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), who, observing England's mixed constitution, contended that dividing these functions prevents arbitrary rule by compelling each branch to restrain the others.[3][4] This framework profoundly influenced the framers of the United States Constitution (1787), who vested legislative powers in Congress (Article I), executive in the President (Article II), and judicial in the federal courts (Article III), with mechanisms like vetoes, appointments, and judicial review to enforce equilibrium, as Madison argued in Federalist No. 51 that such division harnesses human ambition against itself.[5] Beyond the U.S., the principle underpins many modern democracies, though its efficacy hinges on institutional design and cultural adherence, with historical deviations—such as executive overreach in emergencies or legislative encroachments—highlighting persistent tensions between theoretical purity and practical exigencies.[6]